Civil Society in the Enlightenment: The Foundation of Modern Liberalism

The concept of civil society was one of the central concepts of Enlightenment political thought, and it has had a profound influence on the development of modern political theory. The Enlightenment thinkers developed a comprehensive account of the various voluntary associations and institutions that exist between the individual and the state, and they argued that these institutions are essential for the proper functioning of the political life. This article examines the concept of civil society in Enlightenment thought, including its key thinkers, its development, and its lasting influence on modern political theory.

The Definition of Civil Society

Civil society, in the Enlightenment tradition, refers to the various voluntary associations and institutions that exist between the individual and the state. Civil society includes the family, the church, the school, the voluntary association, the professional organization, the trade union, the political party, the press, and the various other institutions that are not part of the state but that play an important role in the life of the community.

The concept of civil society is grounded in the recognition that the state is not the only institution that is important for the proper functioning of the political life. The state is essential for the maintenance of order and the protection of rights, but it is not sufficient for the full development of human life. The proper development of human life requires the existence of a rich and diverse civil society, in which individuals can pursue their various ends and develop their various capacities.

The Major Theorists of Civil Society

The major theorists of civil society in the Enlightenment include the following.

Adam Smith developed a comprehensive account of civil society in his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and his Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith argued that the proper functioning of the economic life required the existence of a rich civil society, with its various institutions of voluntary cooperation, and that the state should not attempt to direct the economic life but should rather create the conditions in which the various institutions of civil society could flourish.

David Hume developed a comprehensive account of civil society in his various essays and in his Treatise of Human Nature. Hume argued that the proper functioning of the political life required the existence of a rich civil society, with its various institutions of voluntary cooperation, and that the state should not attempt to direct the moral and intellectual life but should rather create the conditions in which the various institutions of civil society could flourish.

The Scottish philosophers of the eighteenth century, including Adam Ferguson and William Robertson, developed a comprehensive account of civil society as the foundation of the modern commercial society. The Scottish philosophers argued that the proper functioning of the modern commercial society required the existence of a rich civil society, with its various institutions of voluntary cooperation, and that the modern commercial society was, in important respects, the culmination of the development of human civilization.

The French philosophers of the eighteenth century, especially Montesquieu and Tocqueville, developed a comprehensive account of civil society as the foundation of the modern liberal state. The French philosophers argued that the proper functioning of the modern liberal state required the existence of a rich civil society, with its various institutions of voluntary cooperation, and that the modern liberal state was, in important respects, the proper political expression of the modern commercial society.

The Functions of Civil Society

The Enlightenment theorists identified several important functions of civil society.

The first function was the cultivation of the moral and intellectual faculties. The proper development of human beings, in the Enlightenment view, required the existence of institutions that would cultivate the moral and intellectual faculties. The family, the church, the school, the various voluntary associations — all of these were institutions that helped to cultivate the moral and intellectual faculties of the individuals.

The second function was the promotion of the social cooperation. The proper functioning of the modern commercial society, in the Enlightenment view, required the existence of institutions that would promote the social cooperation among the individuals. The voluntary associations, the professional organizations, the various other institutions of civil society — all of these were institutions that helped to promote the social cooperation among the individuals.

The third function was the limitation of the state. The proper functioning of the modern liberal state, in the Enlightenment view, required the existence of institutions that would limit the power of the state. The voluntary associations, the press, the various other institutions of civil society — all of these were institutions that helped to limit the power of the state and to protect the individuals against the arbitrary exercise of governmental power.

The fourth function was the cultivation of the civic virtue. The proper functioning of the democratic political life, in the Enlightenment view, required the existence of institutions that would cultivate the civic virtue of the individuals. The voluntary associations, the political parties, the various other institutions of civil society — all of these were institutions that helped to cultivate the civic virtue of the individuals and to prepare them for the responsibilities of citizenship.

The Lasting Influence

The Enlightenment concept of civil society has had a lasting influence on the development of modern political theory.

The first major influence is on the development of liberal political theory. The contemporary liberal political theory, with its emphasis on the importance of the voluntary associations, the protection of individual rights, and the limitation of governmental power, is a direct descendant of the Enlightenment concept of civil society. The contemporary defenders of liberal democracy, including the various political philosophers of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, have built on the Enlightenment tradition in their arguments for the proper organization of the modern state.

The second major influence is on the development of the voluntary associations. The contemporary voluntary associations, including the charitable organizations, the professional associations, the political parties, and the various other organizations that constitute contemporary civil society, are all descendants of the Enlightenment tradition. The contemporary emphasis on the importance of the voluntary associations, the proper balance between the state and the civil society, the proper cultivation of the civic virtue — all of these are descendants of the Enlightenment tradition.

The third major influence is on the development of the contemporary debate about the proper relationship between the state and the civil society. The contemporary debate about the proper role of the state, the proper scope of governmental intervention, the proper balance between the public and the private — all of these are descendants of the Enlightenment debate about the proper relationship between the state and the civil society.

Further Reading

• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu), relevant entry
• Mark Goldie & Robert Wokler, eds., The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought (2006)
• Terence Ball, Reappraising Political Theory (1995)