Adam Smith
Adam Smith's life and work: The Wealth of Nations, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and the invisible hand.
Enlightenment Thinkers
Biographies and guides to the philosophers, writers, and scientists of the Enlightenment — from Locke and Voltaire to Kant and Wollstonecraft.
Baruch Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza's philosophy: pantheism, political thought, critique of organized religion, and lasting influence on modern thought.
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin: his life, experiments, political philosophy, diplomacy, and lasting legacy as an American Enlightenment figure.
Cesare Beccaria
Cesare Beccaria, his life and work, On Crimes and Punishments, the reform of criminal law, and the legacy for modern justice.
David Hume
David Hume's philosophy: empiricism, skepticism about causation and miracles, moral sentimentalism, and lasting influence.
Denis Diderot
Denis Diderot: principal editor of the Encyclopédie, novelist, art critic, and materialist philosopher of the French Enlightenment.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
Lessing's life and work: Nathan the Wise, his philosophy of religion, and his influence on German literature and Enlightenment thought.
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant's philosophy: the Critiques, practical reason, aesthetic judgment, and his lasting influence on modern thought.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the controversial philosopher whose ideas on the social contract, general will, and education shaped modern thought.
John Locke
John Locke's life, philosophy, and political thought: empiricism, natural rights, government by consent, and religious toleration.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft's life and works, including A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and her lasting influence on feminism.
Montesquieu
Montesquieu's life, philosophy, and contributions: The Spirit of the Laws, separation of powers, and comparative politics.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): the founder of modern political philosophy, his theory of sovereignty, his materialism, and his influence on the Enlightenment.
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson's life, ideas, and political achievements, including the Declaration of Independence and his complex legacy.
Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine's life and works: Common Sense, Rights of Man, The Age of Reason, and his lasting influence on radical thought.
Voltaire
Voltaire, the prolific writer, wit, and champion of religious toleration who became the public face of the French Enlightenment.