The Cosmopolitanism of the Enlightenment: World Citizenship and Universal Values

The cosmopolitanism of the Enlightenment was one of the most important and most enduring contributions of the period to modern thought. The Enlightenment thinkers developed a comprehensive vision of human beings as citizens of the world as well as of particular states, and they argued for the recognition of universal values that transcend the boundaries of nation, race, and religion. This article examines the cosmopolitanism of the Enlightenment, including its key thinkers, its development, and its lasting influence on modern international thought.

The Origins of Enlightenment Cosmopolitanism

The cosmopolitanism of the Enlightenment was grounded in several key ideas.

The first idea was the belief in the common humanity of all human beings. The Enlightenment thinkers argued that all human beings, regardless of their nationality, race, or religion, shared a common human nature, and that the proper response to this common humanity was the recognition of the equal moral worth of all human beings. The argument was developed in various ways by different thinkers, but it was a basic commitment of the Enlightenment tradition.

The second idea was the belief in the universal applicability of reason. The Enlightenment thinkers argued that reason was a universal human faculty, accessible to all human beings regardless of their particular circumstances. The proper use of reason, in their view, would lead to the recognition of universal principles of morality and politics, and these principles would be the basis of a common human community.

The third idea was the belief in the cosmopolitan order. The Enlightenment thinkers, especially the more radical among them, argued that the proper political order was not the nation-state but the cosmopolitan order, in which all human beings would be treated as citizens of a single world community. The cosmopolitan order was, in their view, the proper culmination of the development of human rationality.

The Major Cosmopolitan Thinkers

The major cosmopolitan thinkers of the Enlightenment include the following.

Immanuel Kant was the most important cosmopolitan thinker of the Enlightenment. His Perpetual Peace (1795) developed a comprehensive vision of the cosmopolitan order, in which the federation of free states would be the basis of the international political life, and in which the cosmopolitan right of individuals would be the basis of the international legal order.

Voltaire was another important cosmopolitan thinker. His campaign on behalf of victims of injustice, regardless of their nationality or religion, was an important expression of the cosmopolitan commitment. His famous defense of the case of Jean Calas, a Protestant merchant in Toulouse, was a powerful statement of the principle that all human beings deserve equal treatment under the law.

César Beccaria, the Italian jurist, was another important cosmopolitan thinker. His On Crimes and Punishments (1764) developed a comprehensive theory of criminal justice that was based on the principles of reason and humanity, and that applied to all human beings regardless of their nationality.

Thomas Paine was an important cosmopolitan thinker in the English-speaking world. His Rights of Man (1791-1792) developed a comprehensive theory of human rights that was based on the principle of the equal moral worth of all human beings, and that applied to all human beings regardless of their nationality.

The Development of Cosmopolitan Thought

The cosmopolitan thought of the Enlightenment developed over the course of the eighteenth century, and it took various forms in different national contexts.

In France, the cosmopolitan thought was closely connected to the development of the human rights tradition. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was, in its aspirations, a cosmopolitan document, and the various revolutionary leaders of the French Revolution, including Lafayette and Mirabeau, drew on the cosmopolitan tradition in their arguments for reform.

In Britain, the cosmopolitan thought was closely connected to the development of the constitutional tradition. The British constitutional system, with its protection of individual rights and its limited government, was a model of the kind of constitutional order that the cosmopolitan thinkers had in mind, and the various British reformers of the eighteenth century drew on the cosmopolitan tradition in their arguments for reform.

In Germany, the cosmopolitan thought was closely connected to the development of the philosophical tradition. The German philosophers, especially Kant and his followers, developed a comprehensive philosophy of history that emphasized the cosmopolitan destination of the human race, and the various German reformers of the eighteenth century drew on the cosmopolitan tradition in their arguments for reform.

The Lasting Influence

The cosmopolitan thought of the Enlightenment has had a lasting influence on the development of modern international thought.

The first major influence is on the development of international law. The contemporary international legal order, with its recognition of the rights of individuals and its commitment to the peaceful resolution of disputes, is a direct descendant of the Enlightenment cosmopolitan tradition. The various international covenants and conventions that have been developed since the Second World War, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Criminal Court, are all descendants of the Enlightenment cosmopolitan thought.

The second major influence is on the development of international institutions. The contemporary international institutions, including the United Nations, the European Union, and the various other regional and international organizations, are all descendants of the Enlightenment cosmopolitan thought. The principle of international cooperation that these institutions embody is a direct expression of the Enlightenment commitment to the cosmopolitan order.

The third major influence is on the development of human rights. The contemporary human rights tradition, with its commitment to the equal moral worth of all human beings and its recognition of the rights of individuals against the state, is a direct descendant of the Enlightenment cosmopolitan thought. The various international human rights documents that have been developed since the Second World War are all descendants of the Enlightenment cosmopolitan tradition.

The Contemporary Challenges

The contemporary challenges to the Enlightenment cosmopolitanism are different from those faced by the original thinkers, but they are no less pressing.

The first major challenge is the persistence of nationalism. The principle of national sovereignty, which was a central commitment of the Enlightenment tradition, has been used to justify the existence of separate and often conflicting nation-states. The proper response to this challenge, on most contemporary accounts, is the development of international institutions and international law that can transcend the limits of the nation-state system.

The second major challenge is the persistence of cultural difference. The principle of cultural relativism, which has been an important development of the late twentieth century, has been used to challenge the universalist claims of the Enlightenment cosmopolitanism. The proper response to this challenge, on most contemporary accounts, is the recognition that the universalist claims of the Enlightenment can be combined with the recognition of cultural difference.

The third major challenge is the persistence of global inequality. The fact of massive global inequality, which the Enlightenment thinkers had largely ignored, is a major challenge to the contemporary commitment to the cosmopolitan order. The proper response to this challenge, on most contemporary accounts, is the development of international economic institutions and international development assistance that can address the problem of global inequality.

Further Reading

• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu), relevant entry
• Mark Goldie & Robert Wokler, eds., The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought (2006)
• Terence Ball, Reappraising Political Theory (1995)