Kant on the History of the Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant’s philosophy of history, developed in a series of essays and in the Critique of Judgment, is one of the foundational texts of the modern philosophy of history. Kant did not believe in a divine providence, but he believed that the natural conflict of human passions and interests could be made to serve the long-term development of human rationality. This article examines Kant’s account of the history of the Enlightenment, including the idea of universal history, the cosmopolitan aim, and the question of human progress.

The Idea of Universal History

Kant developed his philosophy of history in the Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim (1784). The essay begins with the observation that human actions, considered in their particular circumstances, often appear to be the result of caprice and the pursuit of private interests. But when considered from a wider perspective, the actions of human beings may have a deeper purpose that is not apparent in the particular circumstances.

Kant argued that the proper way to understand human history is to consider it from the perspective of a universal history, in which the various actions of human beings are seen as contributing to a larger purpose. The purpose, in Kant’s view, is the gradual development of the perfect civil constitution, the development of the cosmopolitan order that will eventually bring peace among nations.

The argument is, in effect, a kind of secularized theodicy. Kant does not believe in a divine providence, but he believes that the natural conflict of human passions and interests can be made to serve the long-term development of human rationality. The “unsocial sociability” of human beings — their tendency both to cooperate and to compete — is, in this sense, the engine of historical progress.

The Cosmopolitan Aim

Kant’s philosophy of history is cosmopolitan in character. The proper end of human history, in his view, is the development of a cosmopolitan order in which all human beings are treated as ends in themselves, and in which the relations among nations are governed by the principles of justice and mutual respect.

The cosmopolitan aim is grounded in Kant’s moral philosophy. The proper moral life, for Kant, is one in which human beings treat each other as ends, and the proper political life is one in which the relations among nations are governed by the same principle. The cosmopolitan order is, in this sense, the political expression of the moral principles that Kant develops in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and the Critique of Practical Reason.

The cosmopolitan aim is also grounded in Kant’s anthropology. Human beings, for Kant, are citizens of the world as well as citizens of particular states, and the proper political life must recognize this fact. The cosmopolitan order is, in this sense, the political expression of the cosmopolitan character of human existence.

The Question of Progress

Kant did not believe that progress was inevitable, or that the human race was necessarily moving toward a better condition. He believed, rather, that the natural conflict of human passions and interests could be made to serve the long-term development of human rationality, but that this development was not guaranteed.

The proper role of the political life, for Kant, is to create the conditions under which progress is possible. The proper institutions are those that protect the basic rights of the citizens, that limit the power of the government, and that encourage the development of the rational and moral faculties of the citizens. The improper institutions are those that prevent the development of these faculties, and that allow the arbitrary power of the government to interfere with the proper development of human rationality.

The question of progress was, for Kant, an empirical question that could be answered only by an examination of the actual course of human history. The philosopher, on his view, could not establish that progress was inevitable, but he could argue that progress was possible, and that the proper response to this possibility was to work for the creation of the conditions under which progress could take place.

The Role of the Enlightenment in History

Kant believed that the Enlightenment was a critical moment in the history of the human race. The Enlightenment, in his view, was the moment when human beings began to emerge from their self-imposed immaturity and to take responsibility for their own intellectual and moral development.

The Enlightenment was not, however, the end of history. The Enlightenment was, in Kant’s view, a process rather than a state, and the proper task of the present generation was to continue the work of the Enlightenment. The conditions for the proper functioning of the Enlightenment — the freedom of inquiry, the freedom of the press, the freedom of religion, the protection of individual rights — were the conditions for the development of the rational and moral faculties of human beings, and the proper political life must continue to protect these conditions.

The role of the Enlightenment in history, for Kant, was to provide the framework for the gradual development of the cosmopolitan order. The Enlightenment was, in this sense, the political expression of the rational and moral faculties of human beings, and the proper response to the Enlightenment was to work for the realization of the cosmopolitan order in which these faculties could be fully developed.

The Lasting Influence

Kant’s philosophy of history has had a profound influence on the development of modern thought. The German Idealists, including Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, developed their philosophies of history in critical engagement with Kant. The contemporary defenders of the idea of progress, including the various contemporary philosophers who have defended the idea of moral and political progress, have built on Kant’s pioneering work.

Further Reading

• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu), relevant entry
• The Cambridge Companion to [Thinker] (Cambridge University Press)
• Isaiah Berlin, Four Essays on Liberty (1969)